At the Millennium Summit in September of 2000, 189 nations adopted the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as drawn from the Millennium Declaration. Achievement of these goals is set to be reached in 2015 as a response to the world's main development challenges (UN Millennium Development Goals, 2000). The goals are: 1 - to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, 2 - achieve universal primary education, 3 - promote gender equality and empower women, 4 - reduce child mortality, 5 - improve maternal health, 6 - combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, 7 - ensure environmental sustainability, and 8 - develop global partnership for development. Achieving 100% success of these goals is no small task, with extreme poverty at the root of many of these issues. According to the United Nations statistic sheet for Goal 1, World Bank estimates the number of people living in extreme poverty at 1.4 billion people. Poverty rates have fallen though, from 52% in 1981 to 26% in 2005, with East Asia experiencing the greatest diminishment from 80% to 20%, but with sub-Saharan Africa remaining at 50% of the population around the poverty line (UN Millennium Goals Fact Sheet, 2008).
What then is the best way to reduce the number of people below the poverty line, especially in the areas of the world that continue to struggle? One solution has been to expand programs offering micro finance. Since the early 1980s, micro finance has been used to address development issues. The focus is on small scale transactions of credit and savings to assist small to medium sized businesses (Khandker, 2003, p. 1). Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) can be run with regular banks (private or government run), or run by financial intermediaries such as non-government organizations (NGOs) with areas of expertise not directly linked to banking (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004, p. 145). With women primarily participating in these programs, they have been able to establish businesses which generate income, establish support networks for improved healthcare and improve education UN Millennium Goals Fact Sheet, 2008). This paper looks at several country-specific examples of micro finance and how the MDGs are being addressed by this tactic and also evaluating which strategies have been most successful.
India
In the case of India, the country's banking system has taken on the role of managing a micro-loan program. In this specific system, disadvantaged members of developing communities are granted access to financing aimed at lifting them from poverty. No collateral is required, but individuals must form Self-Help Groups (SHGs) which are primarily made up women (Edward & Olson, 2006, p. 32). The theory is that each member of the SHG will keep the other members on target for repayment, as only good repayment history will result in future loans. This system of member reliability reduces, for the lender, the costs of chasing bad debts and accruing losses from write-offs (Edward & Olson, 2006, p. 33).
The justification of lending primarily to women is based on two factors of gender bias. The first being that women are generally understood to be more financially reliable than men, and are also more likely to use money for the benefit of their family. Women also put a high value on their honor and therefore are less likely to default on personal loans (Edward & Olson, 2006, p. 33). Women are encouraged to participate in the financial process because they are perceived to be doubly oppressed, both by poverty and their gender. Through the collective success of the group, women can experience empowerment in the established social structure of India (Edward & Olson, 2006, p. 34). Women are further empowered by having access to their SHG savings. They no longer require lines of credit from wealthy farmers or traditional money lenders, and feel empowered to demand an increase in their wages. SHG members are able to increase their knowledge of financial matters for their own gain (Edward & Olson, 2006, p. 42-43). Through entrepreneurial activities, SGH members are able to lift themselves from poverty, find empowerment and lead their countries towards development.
Sub-Saharan Africa
As a continent, Africa's challenges are most prominent in the MDGs. Approximately 70% of Africa's population and 80% of the cotenant's poor live in rural areas. More than any other region, Africa's poor can benefit from increased incomes and purchasing power (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004, p. 143). Exacerbating the poverty problem is the debilitating influence of HIV/AIDS in the region. Those who suffer from HIV/AIDS are unable to cultivate food and bring themselves out of poverty demonstrating that agricultural growth dramatically affects poverty (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004, p. 144). It is obvious then that the most efficient way of bringing up the region development would be through improved strategies for agriculture.
In Kenneth Kaoma Mwenda and Gerry Nkombo Muuka's article, Towards best practices for micro finance institutional engagement in African rural areas (2004), the authors report on instances of micro finance in Zambia and Mali. Each case study demonstrates how micro finance enterprises are helping to alleviate poverty and address issues of hunger and women's empowerment, all areas listed in the MDGs.
In Zambia, The Cooperative League of the United States of America (CLUSA) has been managing a program on behalf of the Agency for International Development (USAID) (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004, p. 147). It is a small-scale outgrower scheme which helps small-scale farmers to access inputs and credit facilities and allows them to access a reliable market for produce. This is an important change for farmers, as they were previously unable to access credit from commercial banks for such small amounts, and the agricultural bonus for the communities is that the crops promoted for growth are approved by the CLUSA as staple foods. The farmers are offered training, conservation techniques and marketing advice throughout the farming season (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004, p. 148).
Mali's Freedom from Hunger Project changed in 1996 when it joined with two commercial micro finance credit unions in Mali, Nyesigiso and Kafo Jiginew. The Freedom from Hunger field workers help teach women's groups to create and manage their own Credit Associations. The MFI in turn gave the group a loan for which they were jointly liable. The group divided the loan between them based on need, and all were asked to repay the amount within 16 weeks (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004, p 149). Upon prompt repayment with interest, the group was eligible for another larger loan. The advantage of this is that women's entrepreneurial enterprises could prosper and savings were generally put back into each family to pay for food, medicine and schooling (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004, p 149).
In both of these cases, the micro finance systems were effective because they were simple to operate, had transparent systems, were flexible, used local available skills and utilized human capital which created local employment. (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004, p. 154). They targeted women for empowerment, and addressed issues surrounding poverty and hunger with development through agriculture.
Indonesia
After achieving independence in 1946, the Indonesian government formed five commercial banks. Bank Rakayat Indonesia (BRI) was formed in 1950 after a merger of two older banks which focused on credit and savings for the middle class (Hartungi, 2007, p. 389). In the 1970s, BRI unit desa (village units) were created to give small increments of credit to farmers who participated in the government sponsored agricultural development program called BMIS. The goal was to increase the reach of national self-sufficiency on rice production by granting subsidized credit to farmers to purchase fertilizer and pesticides (Hartungi, 2007, p. 390). As further growth and to promote viability of the program, BRI rolled out two additional programs, KUPEDES - a multi purpose rural credit program and SIMPEDES - a village savings program (Hartungi, 2007, p. 390). The growth to the bank from these programs made BRI one of the largest banks in Indonesia with 325 braches and 3,6000 BRI unit desa. Today the BRI unit desa program targets even smaller low income groups which operate small businesses in rural areas. The emphasis in on savings programs and demonstrating that all households can have access to safe liquid savings accounts (Hartungi, 2007, p.391).
BRI and BRI unit desa have won acclaim as a major success in micro-finance (Hartungi, 2007, p. 392). Rusdy Hartungi says there are several factors that have made this program so successful. BRI was given autonomy in the government to operate as a fully commercial institution, setting its own interest rates and project development. They also used a new idea in relation to collateral on loans. Staff screeners require borrowers to present some sort of physical capital in order to qualify for a loan. In order to reach the lower classes, land title, bikes, cars and similar items could be used for this purpose (Hartungi, 2007, p. 394). BRI also offered its staff training and incentives, ensuring they would stay with the bank. They were offered bonuses based on how their specific unit desa performed (Hartungi, 2007, p. 395). One of the biggest advantages to BRI and BRI unit desa was their ability to adapt to changing environments in terms of services and products offered in changing financial climates (Hartungi, 2007, p. 397).
Bangladesh
By far the most famous of all micro finance institutions in the developing world is that of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. Beginning in 1976 as an experimental project and reaching the status of a formal financial institution in 1983, the Grameen Bank started by providing small loans to individuals who owned no more than half and acre of land or assets exceeding the value of one acre of medium quality cultivable land. It has also provided investment advice on maximizing the profitability of the loan (Wahid, 1994, p. 1-2).
Today, the Grameen Bank operates on the idea that credit, under certain circumstances, can generate savings, stemming from the Baker-Hopkins credit model (Wahid, 1994, p. 3). According to that model, as long as the return on assets is larger than the interest on the loan, the income of the household would increase. This system was not previously an option for the very poorest in the community, as they did not have access to collateral to obtain credit from traditional banks. The solution for the Grameen Bank was the institution of a peer monitoring system. The theory was that if loans were taken out in groups, and the group members would monitor the behavior of one another, thus the recovery rate would increase even without collateral. In theory, the group would be motivated by this, because if one individual failed to make repayments on time, the rest of the group would become ineligible for future loans (Wahid, 1994, p. 3-4). Women were sought out to participate in the program, as they were perceived as being more likely to repay the loans, and it was found that credit provided to women directed helped the household, including the health of children, where providing credit to men did not have a similar effect (Pitt, Khandker & Cartwright, 2006, p. 791.). Today the Grameen Bank boasts a 98% repayment rate.
The micro credit enterprises also had spillover benefits on the members and communities beyond simply individual savings. The growth and expansion of the Grameen Bank and its micro enterprises into other communities is labor intensive requiring human capital and fostering job development. For Bangladesh, an unemployed and underemployed labor force in the rural economy was a pressing issue to the alleviation of poverty (Wahid, 1994, p. 2). A study of people who participated in the Grameen Bank noted that those who did, had more man-days of work than before they joined and also found it easier to locate available jobs (Wahid, 1994, p. 5). Another study noted that farmers who participated in the Grameen Bank programs were able to allocate more land for the cultivation of high-yielding crops. This was attributed to the Grameen Bank's providing of financing for irrigation and pesticides which would have otherwise been out of the reach of the farmers previously (Wahid, 1994, p 6). Nutrition for members was also affected. In a sample study conducted by the Institute of Food and Nutrition of Dhaka University in 1986 it was found that while non Grameen Bank members consumed 789 grams per day and a Grameen Bank member consumed and advantageous 857 grams per day (Wahid, 1994, p. 10).
For women, these benefits were even more pronounced and led to empowerment in Bangladesh. Access to the credit programs gave women greater influence over household decisions and in negotiations with their spouses. They gained access to new financial and economic resources, strengthened their social networks and found they had greater mobility within the society. Involvement in these groups has also had a positive effect on women's ability to discuss child rearing and family planning issues with their spouses (Pitt, Khandker & Cartwright, 2006, p. 817).
According to Abu N. M. Wahid, author of The Grameen Bank and Poverty Alleviation in Bangladesh: Theory, Evidence and Limitations (1994), the Grameen Bank did suffered from a few problem areas. By comparing and contrasting his mention of problem areas of that time with statistics from the Grameen Bank today, we can see why the Bank has succeeded and why its founder, Muhammad Yunus, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006.
In 1986, the Bank was making a modest economic profit because of its relatively small size, but as the bank grew, it began to lose. The loss was based on the door to door service provided to its borrowers by the Bank's staff (Wahid, 1994, p. 11). In 1992 the Bank changed its interest rate policy and increased the rate. This rate remains today and is still lower than the government rate, allowing the Grameen bank to remain profitable (Grameen Bank at a Glance, 2008).
Wahid also noted that the Grameen Bank received substantial donor money, demonstrating that it was not an independent and viable bank (1994, p. 12). Today, the Grameen Bank no longer depends on donor money, and has not received any since 1998. The Grameen Bank states that the growing number of deposits from members would be more than enough to expand its current programs and repay any existing loans ((Grameen Bank at a Glance, 2008).
The third problem that Wahid hypothesized would be the struggle to keep the field staff motivated. They regularly put in more hours than they were paid for and refused bribes from their clients, contrary to other government run organizations. Wahid speculated that as the bank grows, opportunities and satisfaction among the staff could decrease (1994, p. 12-13). The Bank's response was to offer a retirement program for its staff, where they may retire after 10 years of service with a cash payment. The Bank also runs a “Stars for Achievement” programs for branches and staff, setting store and personal goals for service (Grameen Bank at a Glance, 2008).
Beyond addressing past problems, the Grameen Bank has also instituted new programs to help its members, including offering a program for beggars to become members, offering housing loans, scholarships, educational loans, life insurance and pension programs for borrowers. The Bank even has a program beyond banking which encourages members to participate in their local government, including elections (Grameen Bank at a Glance, 2008).
The Future of Micro Finance and Conclusions
Grameen Bank is cited as one of the most successful micro finance enterprises and is used as a benchmark for other similar programs. The other examples mentioned above are also successful in their own ways at trying to address the issues of poverty, hunger and the empowerment of women. Studies agree that micro finance programs can be beneficial, but everyone is affected differently. Women particularly see the most benefit in the areas of employment, income generation and social interactions (Khandker, 2003, p. 3). Research undertaken by the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies and the World Bank show that beyond those stated benefits for women, micro-finance programs promote investment in schooling, increase women's awareness of reproductive health, and the acquiring of power in household decision making (Khandker, 2003, p. 4). This shows that microfinance is a valuable tool in addressing many aspects of the Millennium Development Goals.
Even with all of this positive news, there is still much that needs to be done. Poverty levels, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa are still alarmingly high. Micro loans are not the sole answer on these issues, but they are a stepping stone in the right direction of helping address poverty, hunger and women's empowerment.
References
Edward, P., & Olsen, W. (2006). Paradigms and Reality in Micro-
Finance: The Indian Case. Perspectives on Global Development
and Technology, Vol. 5., Iss. 1-2. 31-54.
Grameen Bank. Grameen Bank at a Glance August, 2008. Retrieved
from http://www.grameen-info.org
Hartungi, R. (2007). Understanding the Success Factors of Micro-
Finance Institution in a Developing Country. International
Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 34, No. 6. 388-401.
Khandker, S. (2003). Micro-Finance and Poverty: Evidence Using
Panel Data from Bangladesh. The World Bank Development
Research Group. 1-22.
Mwenda, K., & Muuka, G. (2004). Towards Best Practices for Micro
Finance Instutiional Engagement in African Rural Areas:
Selected Cases and Agenda for Action. International Journal of
Social Economics, Vol. 31, No, 1/2. 143-158.
Pitt, M., Khander, S., & Cartwright, J. (2006). Empowering Women
with Micro Finance: Evidence from Bangladesh. Economic
Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 54, Iss. 4. 791-831.
United Nations. End Poverty 2015 Millennium Development Goals: Fact
Sheet. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/milleniumgoals.
United Nations Development Programme. Millennium Development Goals.
Retrieved from http://www.undp.prg/mdg/basics.shtml
Wahid, N. (1994). The Grameen Bank and Poverty Alleviation in
Bangladesh: Theory, Evidence and Limitations. American Journal
of Economies and Sociologiy, Vol. 53, No. 1. 1-15.
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